Creation Myths
Does innovation require intellectual property rights?
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GoogleThe most forceful performance at last year's Grammy ceremony was a speech by Michael Greene, then president of the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Speaking not long after the 9/11 attacks, Greene gravely warned of a worldwide threat -- "pervasive, out of control, and oh so criminal" -- and implored his audience to "em-brace this life-and-death issue."
Greene was not referring to international terrorism. "The most insidious virus in our midst," he said sternly, "is the illegal downloading of music on the Net."
Greene's sermon may have been a bit overwrought, but he's not alone in his fears. During the last decade, the captains of many industries -- music, movies, publishing, software, pharmaceuticals -- have railed against the "piracy" of their profits. Copyright and patent protections have been breached by new technologies that quickly copy and distribute their products to mass markets. And as quickly as a producer figures a way to encrypt a DVD or software program to prevent duplication, some hacker in Seattle, Reykjavik, or Manila figures a way around it.
The music industry has tried to squelch the threat, most conspicuously by suing Napster, the wildly popular Internet service that matched patrons with the songs they wanted, allowing them to download digital music files without charge. Napster lost the lawsuit and was liquidated, while similar services survive.
But the struggle over Napster-like services has accented a much broader issue: How does an economy best promote innovation? Do patents and copyrights nurture or stifle it? Have we gone too far in protecting intellectual property?
In a paper that has gained wide attention (and caught serious flak) for challenging the conventional wisdom, economists Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine answer the final question with a resounding yes. Copyrights, patents, and similar government-granted rights serve only to reinforce monopoly control, with its attendant damages of inefficiently high prices, low quantities, and stifled future innovation, they write in "Perfectly Competitive Innovation," a report published by the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. More to the point, they argue, economic theory shows that perfectly competitive markets are entirely capable of rewarding (and thereby stimulating) innovation, making copyrights and patents superfluous and wasteful.
Reactions to the paper have been mixed. Robert Solow, the MIT economist who won a Nobel Prize in 1987 for his work on growth theory, wrote Boldrin and Levine a letter calling the paper "an eye-opener" and making suggestions for further refinements. Danny Quah of the London School of Economics calls their analysis "an important and profound development" that "seeks to overturn nearly half a century of formal economic thinking on intellectual property." But UCLA economist Benjamin Klein finds their work "unrealistic," and Paul Romer, a Stanford economist whose path-breaking development of new growth theory is the focus of much of Boldrin and Levine's critique, considers their logic flawed and their assumptions implausible.
"We're not claiming to have invented anything new, really," says Boldrin. "We're recognizing something that we think has been around ever since there has been innovation. In fact, patents and copyrights are a very recent distortion." Even so, they're working against a well-established conventional wisdom that has sanctioned if not embraced intellectual property rights, and theirs is a decidedly uphill battle.
The Conventional Wisdom
In the 1950s Solow showed that technological change was a primary source of economic growth, but his models treated that change as a given determined by elements beyond pure economic forces. In the 1960s Kenneth Arrow, Karl Shell, and William Nordhaus analyzed the relationship between markets and technological change. They concluded that free markets might fail to bring about optimal levels of innovation.
In a landmark 1962 article, Arrow gave three reasons why perfect competition might fail to allocate resources optimally in the case of invention. "We expect a free enterprise economy to underinvest in invention and research (as compared with an ideal)," he wrote, "because it is risky, because the product can be appropriated only to a limited extent, and because of increasing returns in use."
Risk does seem a clear roadblock to investment in technological change. Will all the hours and dollars spent on research and development result in a profitable product? Is the payoff worth the risk? The uncertainty of success diminishes the desire to try. Much of Arrow's article examines economic means of dealing with uncertainty, none of them completely successful.
The second problem, what economists call inappropriability, is the divergence between social and private benefit -- in this case, the difference between the benefit society would reap from an invention and the benefit reaped by the inventor. Will I try to invent the wheel if all humanity would benefit immeasurably from my invention but I'd get only $1,000? Maybe not. Property rights, well-defined, help address the issue.
The third obstacle is indivisibility. The problem here is that the act of invention involves a substantial upfront expenditure (of time or money) before a single unit of the song, formula, or book exists. But thereafter, copies can be made at a fraction of the cost. Such indivisibilities result in dramatically increasing returns to scale: If a $1 million investment in research and development results in just one unit of an invention, the prototype, a $2 million expenditure could result in the prototype plus thousands or millions of duplicates.
This is a great problem to have, but perfect competition doesn't deal well with increasing returns to scale. With free markets and no barriers to entry, products are priced at their marginal cost (that is, the cost of the latest copy), and that price simply won't cover the huge initial outlay -- that is, the large indivisibility that is necessary to create the prototype. Inventors will have no financial incentive for bringing their inventions to reality, and society will be denied the benefits.
Editor's Note: We invite comments and request that they be civil and on-topic. We do not moderate or assume any responsibility for comments, which are owned by the readers who post them. Comments do not represent the views of Reason.com or Reason Foundation. We reserve the right to delete any comment for any reason at any time.
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I think downloading music from net illegally is an crime. Its really impacting the income and profits of both music industry and government. This act should be prohibited. Else the day will come, when every musical industry will run into loss which can be impacted both local and global market. Warms and regards indie songs
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This is really an awesome information. I do think that downloading music from net is really an illegal act. Its really hamper the the business of music company which adversely act the global economy. Regards Ear Hearing Aids
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What are You talking about.
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i bought an ipod and i had to pay an extra 25 dollars even though they haven't proven beyond a reasonable doubt that I have been using illegal mp3's. When i wrote to complain, i got this stupid response saying that i would do something illegal even though i wouldn't. Backlinks
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i bought an ipod and i had to pay an extra 25 dollars even though they haven't proven beyond a reasonable doubt that I have been using illegal mp3's. When i wrote to complain, i got this stupid response saying that i would do something illegal even though i wouldn't. Backlinks
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I think pirates are just smarter, more industrious people in general.
They're usually on the cutting edge of culture, as well as technology, and often make more than regular people. piano recordings -
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One illegal song download does not equal one sale less. In most cases it means you wouldn't buy it anyway if it wasn't available to "try". I said it before, I downloaded few popular songs to see what the fuss was all about, I didn't like it, I deleted the files, it's the same as going to a music store, asking to listen to the album, if you like it you buy it. this page
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I have to agree with mike.. the same things are said about cracked iPhone/iPad apps now. Maybe for every 10/20 or more downloads you "might" have lost a sale.. people who find things free often would not have bought it anyway.. but.. they do give free advertising to the product.. I have found today that artists are finding more creative ways of making money of their material anyway. I hear top hit songs already in commercials and television programs.. while they're STILL on the radio.. it's interesting. PLNDR Coupons - mannequin
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@greg - you might be right, BUT.. should we say that stealing a candy bar for the quickmart is not illegal as long as you wouldn't have taken it if had to pay for it? Think about it.. unique antiques
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The second problem, what economists call inappropriability, is the divergence between social and private benefit -- in this case, the difference between the benefit society would reap from an invention and the benefit reaped by the inventor. Will I try to invent the wheel if all humanity would benefit immeasurably from my invention but I'd get only $1,000? car shipping instant quote
Maybe not. Property rights, well-defined, help address the issue. -
This is quite true and unfortunate. I work with developers all the time and they get quite frustrated and often throw in the towel because many people think that anything web or creative related is GPL open source by default just because it's accessible or crackable. IDK what to think anymore.
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MIke has really got a point. There are real people putting real effort behind these things that we are just 'taking' mostly just because we can so easily and the mask that 'everyones does it'. We've become removed from the crime that we are committing. I wouldn't want someone stealing football shirts from my website. Immaterial things are the same as material things. Stealing is stealing.
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I think this is really a great article. I think you have to protect your thoughts or inventions especially in today's society. People will steal your idea in a heart beat.
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Intellectual Property Rights have been a big issue for a long time...it seems that foreign companies don't have to play by the rules like USA based companies.
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I think this is really a great article. I think you have to protect your thoughts or inventions especially in today's society. People will steal your idea in a heart beat.
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downloading music from internet is really an illegal act.
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Garbage in, garbage out. Music leaves you lost anyway. I think its a shame that music is so readily available. The point of dowloadable music being illegal increases the feelings of shame and furthermore lowlife mentality. Music TK Anyway, thanks for letting me share my thoughts.
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I think downloading music from net illegally is an crime. Its really impacting the backlinks income and profits of both music industry and government.
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With that whole "current value" thing and the inventor being paid the value of what they expect the sales to be...that's just insanity? How could you possibly predict how well something is going to sell?
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I think this is the only reason why governing agencies from round the world are targeting to make internet as their sole property.
Downloading over internet is so high as there are many countries which don't consider this as illegal. Don't want to take the name of such countries but this needs something done from every end of this world wedding
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One illegal song download does not equal one sale less, many people that illegally download 1 song may not be willing to pay for an entire album
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even if you don't want an entire album in most cases individual songs can be purchased via itunes
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I'm confused as to what is indefinitely considered as intellectual property these. It's such an ambiguous term...
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With free markets and no barriers to entry, products are priced at their marginal cost
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I still not understand why Napster was liquidated.. That was the start in the century!
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It was a shame, that a startup company like napster was terminated by the gov. :-( sad story.
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Great article. Very smart! I love it. Thank you, very much! Douglas Clement is my favorite journalist from Reason.
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I wonder how the priates would feel if it was them loosing there hard work and lively hood
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Napster was a great company. The start of sharing information and music. Napster was the beginning of everything! Online Horoskop
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What about limewire and so on. How can they exist? Why are they still surviving?
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I have to agree with mike.. the same things are said about cracked iPhone/iPad apps now. Maybe for every 10/20 or more downloads you "might" have lost a sale.. people who find things free often would not have bought it anyway.. but.. they do give free advertising to the product..
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